Kenya travel guide

Hemingway E, Green Hills of Africa, masterly short stories based on the author’s African visits in 1933-1934.

Le Carre J, The Constant Gardener, a powerful story about a British diplomat in Nairobi whose wife is murdered while investigating a drugs trial scandal; later made into a popular movie.

Mwangi M, Going Down River Road, grim but entertaining story of African urban life.

Anderson D, History of the Hanged; Britain’s Dirty War in Kenya and the end of Empire, covers the final years of the Mau Mau uprising and looks at the mistreatment of the Kikuyu people, who the British herded into concentration camps where many died.

Fox J, White Mischief, looks at the notorious ‘Happy Valley’ set in 1940s colonial Kenya and investigates the unsolved murder of Lord Erroll, aka Josslyn Hay.

Hibbert C, Africa Explored: Europeans in the Dark Continent 1769-1889, describes the exploits of the main explorers, including the search for the source of the Nile.

Huxley E, Flame Trees of Thika, stories of the lives of the early pioneers told through the eyes of a young girl growing up on a coffee farm.

Kenyatta J, Facing Mount Kenya, written in the colonial times before he became the first president of Kenya, this gives an interesting insight into the history and the culture of the Kikuyu people.

Miller C, Lunatic Express, highly readable history of East Africa, centring around the building of the railway.

Monbiot G, No Man’s Land, tells how the nomadic tribes in Kenya and Tanzanian are being forced off their land by drought and the pressures of a modern world.

Adamson J, Born Free, the classic tale of Elsa the lioness that was raised and set free by Joy and George Adamson in the 1960s. Joy wrote several more books about releasing big cats into the wild in Kenya.

Blixen K, Out of Africa, wonderfully written, impressions of the author’s life in Kenya.

Maathai W, Unbowed: A Memoir, autobiography of 2004 Nobel Peace Prize winner Wangari Maathai, an extraordinary woman who has instigated the planting of some 30 million trees in Kenya .

Markham B, West with the Night, marvellous autobiography of the woman who made the first solo east to west Atlantic flight.

Patterson J, The Man-eaters of Tsavo, adventurous account of how railway supervisor John Patterson tracked down and shot 2 man-eating lions that had been terrorizing workers during the building of the Uganda Railway.

Although Kenya has less formal art galleries than many other countries, it has an invaluable artistic wealth easily seen in the many curio and craft markets and shops. Going right back in time there are a few locations in the country with examples of rock art painted by early man when they still lived in caves. Many of Kenya’s tribes have traditionally held a great significance on decoration of both functional objects such as pots and baskets, weapons, and musical instruments, and also the body. You only have to see a proud Masai or Samburu warrior wrapped in vivid robes and intricate jewellery to see evidence of how important adornment is in these societies. In fact the Samburu who pay a great deal of attention to their appearance with their ochre-stained skin and elaborate hairstyles, were named, perhaps a little scornfully, by the other tribes – Samburu means butterfly.

For the Masai, the use of decorative beading is very significant as it is used to emphasise social status and to record stages of initiation and passage. Wood carving all over Kenya was at first used for decoration of personal items, but today of course anything that might be attractive to tourists is carved out of wood; a lucrative trade that employs a number of talented carvers in Kenya. Some of the best carvers are found on the islands of Lamu, who produce excellent doors, brass inlaid boxes, picture frames and small replica dhows.

The Kisii of Western Kenya are also well known for their carving in stone, using local soapstone in various shades. Most are small items such as goblets, chess pieces or ash trays. Sisal baskets usually produced in Kikuyu areas are usually used as handbags, although their traditional use is being carried by Kikuyu women behind the head, with the strap across the forehead. Painting and drawing in the formal European sense was introduced in Africa by colonialism. Probably the best known artist in Kenya was Joy Adamson, who as well as being known for her work with the conservation of big cats she was also commissioned by the Kenya government to pay a series of portraits of Kenya’s tribes in the 1940-1950s. Even today these are a great testament to the people of Kenya, especially as these days younger people are choosing not to follow their tribal traditions. Today Kenya has a number of young modern artists and the Nairobi galleries exhibit contemporary art, whilst the curio markets continue to find a steady stream of customers for crafts.

Most traditional Kenyan music and dance are centred on drums (ngomas), and there is a variety of drums used throughout the country that are played for people to dance to. Other instruments include reed flutes and basic stringed instruments, such as the nyatiti, which is similar to a medieval lyre and is usually played by a solo singer. Inland, the colonial period gave rise to Beni singing; very long narrative songs with strong elements of social commentary and political criticism. On the coast, the Swahili culture saw the growth of a unique style of music called Taarab, which fuses African percussion with Arabian rhythms and is performed by a large group of musicians playing violins, ouds and singing in Kiswahili. It was thought to have its origins from the 19th century when the Omanis traded on the coast. In modern times, these instruments are being replaced by electric guitars and keyboards but the scales of the notes are still distinctively Arabian. Most of the singers are female and the songs these days are very similar to the music that accompanies Bollywood movies. Since the 1970s pop music has been popular in Kenya, especially imported West African music such as makossa or highlife, or Congolese rumba, which are all very infectious and danceable. Today Congolese music (Lingala) is extremely popular and the type you are most likely to hear on matatus, in the streets, in bars and clubs, in fact anywhere and everywhere. Many of the musicians that play this music have actually relocated to Nairobi because of their success there. Also today, thanks to radio, young Kenyans are listening and dancing to, as well as playing, the same sort of chart topping music as their contemporaries in the rest of the world. Rap has become increasingly popular among young Kenyans, and there are several Kenya-based rap bands. Whilst the style of music is virtually indistinguishable from US-based rappers, the lyrics are most definitely Kenyan and have much to say about life in modern Kenya. Since the late 1990s, two young Kenyan musicians, Joseph Ogidi and Jahd Adonijah who call themselves Gidi Gidi Maji Maji, have become one of Kenya’s most successful rap bands, not only in Kenya but in South Africa. Their style of music is a fusion of contemporary rap and African music in Dholuo, their mother tongue. One of their most famous songs is Unbwogable (Unbeatable) a danceable and politically flammable song that became an anthem for opposition politics and reached its peak during the 2003 change of government in Kenya. The rise of Christianity greatly increased the popularity of gospel and choral music and many Kenyans sing in church each Sunday. Acrobatics have also become increasingly popular in Kenya. A growing number of young performers have taken to this art of traditional dance combined with modern gymnastic technique. In Nairobi’s poorest suburbs, acrobatics has become a popular form of exercise, entertainment, and a low-cost and accessible form of performance art, and these acts are beginning to feature as entertainment in the tourist hotels.

Kenya has long been a meeting place of population movements from around the continent. This has resulted in there being as many as 40 different tribes living in Kenya, and many more sub-groups, with an estimated overall population of 38 million people. There are three main groupings based on the origins of these groups. The Bantu came from West Africa in a migration, the reasons for which are not clearly understood. The Nilotic peoples came from the northwest, mostly from the area that is now Sudan. They were mainly pastoralists, and moved south in search of better grazing on more fertile land. Finally there is the Hamitic group, made up of a series of relatively small communities such as the Somali, Rendille, Boran, Ogaden and others, all pastoralists, who have spread into Kenya in the north and northeast from Ethiopia and Somalia.

The Constitution of Kenya guarantees freedom of worship and there are hundreds of religious denominations and sects in the country. The population in Kenya generally follows three major, modern religions: 38% is Protestant, 28% Roman Catholic, and 10% are Muslim. The remaining people are followers of tribal religions, plus a few Hindus and Sikhs. Most of the Christian population lives in western and central Kenya, while Islam is the main religion for most of the coastal communities and the Somali community. Islam arrived along the East African coast in the eighth century, as part of the trade routes from the Persian Gulf and Oman. Kenya’s Christian churches are the outcome of early missionary activities, which assisted in the administrative of the country during colonial times. In Kenya today there are still many mission churches and many worldwide religious groups have a strong presence, including US-style evangelism, which has become very popular in Kenya in recent years. Although traditional beliefs and practices vary among Kenya’s ethnic groups, they share many general characteristics. Almost all involve belief in an eternal creator. For example the Kikuyu’s god is named Nagi, who is represented in the sun, moon, thunder and lighting, stars, rain, the rainbow and in large fig trees that serve as places of worship and sacrifice. In many traditional religions, ghosts of ancestral spirits are thought to return to seek revenge on the living so they too must be paid homage.

Later still began an influx of peoples from all over Africa that lasted right up until about the 19th century. The first wave came from Ethiopia when the tall, lean Cushitic people gradually moved into Kenya over the second millennium BC settling around Lake Turkana in the north. These people practised mixed agriculture, keeping animals and planting crops. There is still evidence of irrigation systems and dams and wells built by them in the arid northern parts of Kenya. As the climate changed, getting hotter and drier, they were forced to move on to the hills above Lake Victoria.

The Eastern Cushitics, also pastoralists, moved into central Kenya around 3000 years ago. This group assimilated with other agricultural communities and spread across the land. The rest of Kenya’s ancestors are said to have arrived between 500 BC and AD 500 with Bantu-speaking people arriving from West Africa and Nilotic speakers from Southern Sudan attracted by the rich grazing and plentiful farmland.

The Kenyan coast attracted people from other parts of the world as well as Africa. The first definite evidence of this is a description of Mombasa by the Greek Diogenes in AD 110 on his return to Egypt. He describes trading in cloth, tools, glass, brass, copper, iron, olives, weapons, ivory and rhinoceros horn at Mombasa. In AD 150 Ptolemy included details of this part of the coast in his Map of the World. It was to be another few centuries before the arrival of Islam on the coast and the beginning of its Golden Age.

Arab and Persian settlers developed trade routes extending across the Indian Ocean into China establishing commercial centres all along the East Africa coast. They greatly contributed to the arts and architecture of the region and built fine mosques, monuments and houses. Evidence of the prosperity of this period can be seen in the architecture in parts of Mombasa, Malindi and Lamu, and particularly in the intricate and elegant balconies outside some of the houses in the old part of Mombasa. All along this part of the coast, intermarriage between Arabs and Africans resulted in a harmonious partnership of African and Islamic influences personified in the Swahili people. This situation continued peacefully until the arrival of the Portuguese in the 16th century.

There is evidence that the forefathers of Homo sapiens lived in this part of East Africa 10,000-12,000 years ago. In the 1960s Louis Leakey, a Kenyan-born European, and his wife Mary, began a series of archaeological expeditions in East Africa, particularly around Lake Turkana in the north. During these excavations they traced human biological and cultural development back from about 50,000 years to 1.8 million years ago. They discovered the skull and bones of a two million-year-old fossil, which they named Homo habilis and who they argued was an ancestor to modern man. Since the 1970s, Richard Leakey, son of Louis and Mary Leakey, has uncovered many more clues as to the origins of humankind and how they lived, unearthing some early Stone Age tools. These findings have increased our knowledge of the beginnings of earth, and establish the Rift Valley as the Cradle of Humankind. Many of the fossils are now in the National Museum of Nairobi. Little evidence exists as to what happened between the periods 1.8 million and 250,000 years ago except that Homo erectus stood upright and moved further afield, spreading out over much of Kenya and Tanzania.

More recently there have been two significant discoveries. In March 2001 it emerged that a team including Richard Leakey’s wife Meave had found an almost complete skull of a previously unknown creature near Lamekwi River in the north. The skull of Kenyanthropus platyops has a flat face, much like modern humans and has been dated at between 3.2 million and 3.5 million years old. This is about the same time as the famous ‘Lucy’ – Australopithecus afarensis – found in Ethiopia in 1974, was living and suggests that modern humans evolved from one of several closely related ape-like ancestors of that period.

A potentially more remarkable find was also announced in 2001. Fourteen fragments of a six million-year-old ‘Millennium Man’ were discovered in the remote Tugen Hills west of Lake Baringo. The fossils from four bodies of Orrorin tugenensis are among the oldest remains of ape-like ancestors ever found, about twice as old as Lucy. They appear to be more human-like than could have been imagined for a creature that lived so long ago and could be the remains of the oldest known direct ancestor of humans.

In more recent times, from 5000-3000 BC Kenya was inhabited by hunter-gatherer groups, the forefathers of the Boni, Wata and Wariangulu people.

The two parties that had contested the 1963 elections with KANU were persuaded to join KANU and Kenya became a single-party state. In 1966 Odinga left KANU and formed a new party, the Kenya People’s Union, with strong Luo support. Tom Mboya, was assassinated by a Kikuyu in 1969. There followed a series of riots in the west of the country by Luos, and Odinga was placed in detention where he remained for the next 15 months. At the next general election in 1969 only KANU members were allowed to contest seats, and two-thirds of the previous national assembly lost their seats.

The East African Community (EAC) comprising Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda, which ran many services in common such as the railways, the airline, post and telecommunications, began to come under strain. Kenya had pursued economic policies which relied on a strong private sector; Tanzania had adopted a socialist strategy after 1967; Uganda had collapsed into anarchy and turmoil under Amin. In 1977, Kenya unilaterally pulled out of the EAC, and in response Tanzania closed its borders with Kenya.

Kenyatta was able to increase Kenya’s prosperity and stability through reassuring the settlers that they would have a future in the country and that they had an important role in its success at the same time as delivering his people limited land reform. Under Kenyatta’s presidency, Kenya became one of the more successful newly independent countries.

At the same time as the KAU were looking for political change, a Kikuyu group, Mau Mau, began a campaign of violence. In the early 1950s the Mau Mau began terrorist activities, and several white settlers were killed as well as thousands of Africans thought to have collaborated with the colonial government.

The British authorities declared a state of emergency in 1952 in the face of the Mau Mau campaign and the Kikuyu were herded into ‘protected villages’ surrounded by barbed wire. People were forbidden to leave during the hours of darkness. From 1952 to 1956 the terrorist campaign waged against the colonial authority resulted in the deaths of 13,000 Africans and 32 European civilians. Over 20,000 Kikuyu were placed in detention camps before the Mau Mau finally were defeated. The British imprisoned Kenyatta in 1953 for seven years for alleged involvement in Mau Mau activities, and banned the KAU, though it is debatable as to whether Kenyatta had any influence over Mau Mau activities.

The cost of suppressing the Mau Mau, the force of the East African case, and world opinion, convinced the British government that preparation for Independence was the wisest course. The settlers were effectively abandoned, and were left with the prospect of making their own way under a majority-rule government. A number did sell up and leave, but many, encouraged by Kenyatta, stayed on to become Kenyan citizens.

The state of emergency was lifted in January 1960 and a transitional constitution was drafted allowing for the existence of political parties and ensuring Africans were in the majority in the Legislative Council. African members of the council subsequently formed the Kenya African National Union (KANU) with James Gichuru, a former president of KAU, as its acting head, and Tom Mboya and Oginga Odinga, two prominent Luos, part of the leadership. KANU won the majority of seats in the Legislative Council but refused to form an administration until the release of Kenyatta.

In 1961 Kenyatta became the president of KANU. KANU won a decisive victory in the 1963 elections, and Kenyatta became prime minister as Kenya gained internal self-government. Kenya became fully independent later that year, the country was declared a republic, and Kenyatta became president. Kenya retained strong links with the UK, particularly in the form of military assistance and financial loans to compensate European settlers for their land, some of which was redistributed among the African landless.

Kenyatta died in 1978 to be succeeded by Daniel arap Moi, his vice president. Moi began by relaxing some of the political repression of the latter years of Kenyatta’s presidency. However, he was badly shaken by a coup attempt in 1982 that was only crushed after several days of mayhem, and a more repressive period was ushered in. Relations between Kenya and its neighbours began to improve in the 1980s and the three countries reached agreement on the distribution of assets and liabilities of the EAC by 1983. At this time the border between Kenya and Tanzania was reopened. In 1992 political parties (other than KANU) were allowed. Moi and KANU were returned (albeit without a majority of the popular vote) in the multiparty elections late in 1992. In the 1997 presidential elections Moi was again victorious, with an increased share of the vote. In the elections for the National Assembly KANU achieved a slender overall majority with 107 seats out of 210.

Mombasa was known to be rich in both gold and ivory, making it a tempting target for the Portuguese. Vasco da Gama, in search of a sea route to India, arrived in Mombasa in 1498. He was unsuccessful in docking there at this time, but two years later ransacked the town. For many years the Portuguese returned to plunder Mombasa until finally they occupied the city. There followed 100 years of harsh colonial rule from their principal base at Fort Jesus overlooking the entrance to the old harbour. Arab resistance to Portuguese control of the Kenyan coast was strong, but they were unable to defeat the Portuguese who managed to keep their foothold in East Africa.

The end of Portuguese control began in 1696 with a siege of Fort Jesus. The struggle lasted for nearly 2½ years when the Arabs finally managed to scale the fortress walls. By 1720, the last Portuguese garrison had left the Kenyan coast. The Arabs remained in control of the East African coast until the arrival of the British and Germans in the late 19th century. In this period the coast did not prosper as there were destructive intrigues amongst rival Arab groups and this hampered commerce and development in their African territories.

The British influence in Kenya began quite casually in 1823 following negotiations between Captain Owen, a British Officer, and the Mazruis who ruled the island of Mombasa. The Mazruis asked for British protection from attack by other Omani interests in the area. Owen granted British protection in return for the Mazruis abolishing slavery. He sent to London and India for ratification of the treaty, posted his first officer together with an interpreter, four sailors and four marines and thus began the British occupation of Kenya. At this time, interest in Kenya was limited to the coast and then only as part of an evangelical desire to eliminate slavery. However, 50 years later attitudes towards the country changed.

In 1887 the Imperial British East Africa Company (IBEAC) founded its headquarters in Mombasa with the purpose of developing trade. From here it sent small groups of officials into the interior to negotiate with local tribesmen. One such officer Frederick Lugard made alliances with the Kikuyu en route to Uganda.

The final stage in British domination over Kenya was the development of the railway. The IBEAC and Lugard believed a railway was essential to keep its posts in the interior of Kenya supplied with essential goods, and also believed it was necessary in order to protect Britain’s position in Uganda. Despite much opposition in London, the railway was built, commencing in 1901, at an eventual cost of £5 million (US$7.3 million).

Nairobi was created at the centre of operations as a convenient stopping point between Mombasa and Lake Victoria where a water supply was available. Despite problems, the railway reached Nairobi in 1899 and Port Florence (Kisumu) in 1901, and was the catalyst for British settlers moving into Kenya as well as for African resistance to the loss of their lands.

From 1895 to 1910 the government encouraged white settlers to cultivate land in the Central Highlands of the country around the railway, particularly the fertile Western Highlands. It was regarded as imperative to attract white settlers to increase trade and thus increase the usefulness of the railway. The Masai bitterly opposed being moved from their land but years of war combined with the effects of cholera, smallpox, rinderpest and famine had considerably weakened their resistance. The Masai were moved into two reserves on either side of the railway, but soon had to move out of the one to the north as the white settlers pressed for more land. Kikuyu land was also occupied by white settlers as they moved to occupy the highlands around the western side of Mount Kenya.

By 1915 there were 21,400 sq km set aside for about 1000 settlers. This number was increased after the Second World War with the Soldier Settlement Scheme. Initially the settlers grew crops and raised animals, basing their livelihood on wheat, wool, dairy and meat, but by 1914 it was clear that these had little potential as export goods so they changed to maize and coffee. Perhaps the most famous of the early settlers was Lord Delamere. He was important in early experimental agriculture and it was through his mistakes that many lessons were learnt about agriculture in the tropics. He tried out different wheat varieties until he developed one that was resistant to wheat rust. The 1920s saw the rapid expansion of settler agriculture – in particular coffee, sisal and maize – and the prices for these commodities rose, increasing settlers’ optimism about their future.

However, when the prices plummeted in the Depression of the 1930s the weaknesses of the settler agriculture scheme were revealed. By 1930 over 50% by value of settler export was accounted for by coffee alone, making them very vulnerable when prices fell. Many settlers were heavily mortgaged and could not service their debts. About 20% of white farmers gave up their farms, while others left farming temporarily. Cultivated land on settler farms fell from 2690 sq km in 1930 to 2030 sq km in 1936.

About one-third of the colonial government’s revenue was from duties on settlers’ production and goods imported by the settlers. Therefore the government was also seriously affected by the fall in prices. In earlier years the government had shown its commitment to white agriculture by investment in infrastructure (for example railways and ports) and, because of its dependence on custom duties, it felt it could not simply abandon the settlers. Many of the settlers were saved by the colonial government who pumped about £1 million (US$1.46 million) into white agriculture with subsidies and rebates on exports and loans, and the formation of a Land Bank.

Following the Depression and the Second World War the numbers of settlers increased sharply so that by the 1950s the white population had reached about 80,000. As well as dairy farming, the main crops they grew were coffee, tea and maize. However, discontent among the African population over the loss of their traditional land to the settlers was growing. In order to increase the pool of African labour for white settler development (most Africans were unwilling to work for the Europeans voluntarily) taxes and other levies were imposed. Furthermore, Africans were prevented from growing coffee, the most lucrative crop, on the grounds that there was a risk of coffee berry disease with lots of small producers. Thus many Africans were forced to become farm labourers or to migrate to the towns in search of work to pay the taxes. By the 1940s the European farmers had prospered in cash-crop production.

As the number of Europeans moving into the country increased, so too did African resistance to the loss of their land and there was organized African political activity against the Europeans as early as 1922. The large number of Africans, particularly Kikuyu, moving into the growing capital Nairobi formed a political community supported by sections of the influential Asian community. This led to the formation of the East African Association, the first pan-Kenyan nationalist movement led by Harry Thuku. His arrest and the subsequent riots were the first challenge to the settlers and the colonial regime.

Jomo Kenyatta, an influential Kikuyu, led a campaign to bring Kikuyu land grievances to British notice. In 1932 he gave evidence to the Carter Land Commission in London which had been set up to adjudicate on land interests in Kenya, but without success. During the war years, all African political associations were banned and there was no voice for the interests of black Kenyans. At the end of the war, thousands of returning African soldiers began to demand rights, and discontent grew. Kenyatta had remained abroad travelling in Europe and the Soviet Union and returned in 1946 as a formidable statesman. In 1944 an African nationalist organization, the Kenya African Union (KAU) was formed to press for African access to settler occupied land. The KAU was primarily supported by the Kikuyu. In 1947 Kenyatta became president of KAU and was widely supported as the one man who could unite Kenya’s various political and ethnic factions.

Kenya is 580,367 sq km in area with the equator running right through the middle. Physically, the country is made up of a number of different zones. It lies between latitude 5° North and 4° 30’ South and longitude 34° and 41° East. The Great Rift Valley runs from the north to the south of the country and in places is 65 km across, bounded by escarpments 600-900 m high. This is probably the most spectacularly beautiful part of the country, dotted with soda lakes teeming with flamingos. To the east of the Rift Valley lies the Kenya Highlands with Mount Kenya, an extinct volcano, which at 5199 m is Africa’s second-highest mountain. This is the most fertile part of the country, particularly the lower slopes of the mountain range. Nairobi sits at the southern end of the Central Highlands. The north of Kenya is arid, bounded by Sudan and Ethiopia. To the west lies Uganda and the fertile shores around Lake Victoria. Further south, the land turns into savannah, and is mainly used for grazing.

The Indian Ocean coast to the east of the country runs for 480 km and there is a narrow strip of fertile land all along it. Beyond this, the land becomes scrubland and semi-arid. Somalia borders Kenya in the northeast, and this is also a fairly arid area.

Kenya’s economy remains heavily reliant on rain-fed agriculture and tourism revenues, leaving it vulnerable to cyclical booms and busts caused by the climate and internal stability. Income levels are modest for an African country although it’s not as poor as some of its neighbours. GDP per capita has been about US$1700 per year since 2007.

The agricultural sector continues to dominate Kenya’s economy, although only 15% of Kenya’s total land area has sufficient fertility and rainfall to be farmed and only 7-8% can be classified as first-class land. Most families rely on agriculture for their livelihood, and 75% of the labour force is engaged in farming, but incomes in agriculture are low, and the sector generates only 23.8% of GDP. Kenya’s chief exports are horticultural products such as flowers and vegetables destined for European supermarkets and tea. In 2005, the combined value of these commodities was put at just over US$1000 million per annum, with Kenya’s third largest export coffee coming in at around US$100 million per annum. Industry contributes 16.7% of output, but it must be remembered that there is little contribution from mining which boosts industrial output in many other African countries. Services is the largest sector at 59.5% of the GDP, and it contains tourism, which is Kenya’s largest source of foreign exchange.

Kenya has been in receipt of structural adjustment loans from the World Bank. Foreign Aid receipts per head are about average for Africa – they would be higher if the international community were more confident about the government’s intention to tackle corruption. Some US$5.9 billion of external debt is estimated at being outstanding. Debt service takes up 13.5% of export earnings and at present this is within Kenya’s ability to service, providing export revenues can be maintained.

Daniel arap Moi was elected to the Presidency in October 1978 following the death of Jomo Kenyatta, and began a programme to reduce Kenya’s corruption and release all political detainees. Moi, a Kalenjin, emphasized the need for a new style of government with greater regional representation of tribal groups. However, he did not fully live up to his promises of political freedom and Oginga Odinga (the prominent Luo who had been a voice of discontent in KANU under Kenyatta) and four other former KANU members who were critical of Moi’s regime were barred from participating in the 1979 election. This led to an increase in protests against the government, mainly from Luos. Moi began to arrest dissidents, disband tribal societies and close the universities whenever there were demonstrations. This period also saw the strengthening of Kenya’s armed forces.

On 1 August 1982 there was a coup attempt supported by a Luo-based section of the Kenyan Air Force supported by university students. Although things initially appeared to be touch-and-go, the coup was eventually crushed, resulting in an official death toll of 159. As a result of the coup attempt, many thousands of people were detained and the universities again closed. The constitution was changed to make Kenya officially a one-party state.

Moi decided to reassert his authority over KANU by calling an early election in which he stood unopposed. Inevitably he was re-elected but less than 50% of the electorate turned out to vote.

Subsequent measures have served to centralize power under the presidency, and to reduce the ability of the opposition to contest elections. The president acquired the power to to dismiss the attorney-general, the auditor-general and judges, while control of the civil service passed to the President’s Office. Secret ballots were abandoned, and voters were required to queue behind the candidate of their choice. This severely reduced willingness to be seen voting against the government. Secret ballots were restored in 1990.

In 1990, Dr Robert Ouko, a Luo and Minister for Foreign Affairs and International Cooperation, was murdered. British police were asked to investigate, and named Nicholas Biwott, a Kalenjin and Minister for Energy, as being implicated in the killing. Biwott was dropped from the cabinet, but has subsequently returned.

International pressure in 1991 persuaded Moi to introduce a multi-party system. The opposition was fatally split, however, and in the 1992 elections Moi was returned as president with 36% of the popular vote. However, the opposition did secure 88 seats of the 188 contested, and the democratic process was significantly strengthened as a result.

The 1997 election was similar, with the opposition split, and Moi returned with 40% of the vote. In the Parliament the opposition made gains, with nine opposition parties securing 103 seats between them, while KANU obtained a slender overall majority with 107.

Moi was re-elected five times over 24 years. His term ended when the KANU candidate, Uhuru Kenyatta (the son of Jomo Kenyatta), who replaced him as head of the party, was beaten at the polls in a landslide victory in the 2002 election by Mwai Kibaki of the opposition party, the National Rainbow Coalition (NARC). Kibaki was previously vice- president (1978-1988) and held numerous cabinet positions. He pledged to attack corruption and established the Kenya Anti-Corruption Commission (KACC). As a result of this, the IMF resumed loans to Kenya over a three-year period. But some international donors estimate that US$1 billion has been lost to corruption through government departments between 2002-2005, and to date despite numerous investigations, no high- profile figures have been convicted in court on corruption charges. In 2003, the government also decided to grant immunity to Moi over corruption charges. However one of his successes has been to provide free education for primary school age children across Kenya, which saw nearly 1.7 million more pupils enroll in school by the end of 2004.

Kibaki instigated a constitutional referendum in 2005 calling for more presidential power with a lesser role for the Prime Minister and cabinet members. However, the final draft of the constitution retained sweeping powers for the Head of State. Some members of his own cabinet and the main opposition party mobilized a powerful campaign that resulted in a majority of 58% Kenyan voters rejecting the draft. As a consequence, Kibaki sacked and reappointed his entire cabinet and his popularity with the public plummeted.

Kibaki was sworn in on 30 December 2007 for his second presidential term after emerging winner of an election that was marked by accusations of fraud and widespread irregularities that led to civil unrest. His primary contender for President was Raila Odinga, son of Kenya’s first vice-president under Kenyatta, who went to the polls for the 2007 election on the Orange Democratic Movement (ODM) ticket. The general and parliamentary election was held on 27 December 2007, which was declared a public holiday for people to vote. The day was peaceful and people formed orderly queues at the polling stations. The following day was also peaceful as votes were counted in the constituencies and early reports from these seemed to indicate that Ondinga was well in the lead and the ODM declared victory for him on 29 December. As the polling boxes were delivered and recounted at the Electoral Commission in Nairobi, it began to become apparent that the vote had swung towards Kibaki. A spokesman for the Electoral Commission appeared on television on December 30th and declared Kibaki the winner by about 230,000 votes though admitted that there seemed to be some discrepancy between the results counted at the constituencies and the recount in Nairobi. Odinga then claimed that at least 300,000 votes for Kibaki were falsely included in the total. Within minutes of the Commission’s declaration of Kibaki’s victory, rioting and violence, primarily directed against Kikuyus (Kibaki is a Kikuyu), broke out across Kenya. Most noticeably in Odinga’s homeland of Nyanza Province in Western Kenya and in the slums of Nairobi, particularly Kibera, which is part of Odinga’s Langata constituency. Later in January, the Rift Valley towns of Nakuru and Naivasha were seriously affected. There was some violence on the coast, but it wasn’t ethnic fuelled; the people were simply demonstrating about the injustice of the election result. By the fifth day after the elections, the army and police were out on the streets, who also attacked and got attacked by demonstrators. By then there was a news blackout in Kenya, which presumably was a move by the government to try and stop the fuel of violence by not allowing news of events happening in other parts of the country to spread. Although the violence was triggered by the elections, long-standing grievances over unequal distribution of land, wealth and power are seen as the real reasons behind the demonstrations; mostly dubbed by the press as ‘ethnic’ clashes.

The worst of the chaos went on for about 10 days and peaked when about 30 people, including many children, were killed when a church was burnt down near Eldoret, although more incidents broke out sporadically until mid January in the Rift Valley towns. An estimated 700 people lost their lives, although some resources have put this number as high as 1500, and over 200,000 were displaced. Within hours of the crisis, many world leaders including Ghanaian president John Kufuor and South Africa’s Arch Bishop Desmond Tutu flew in for emergency talks with Kibaki and Odinga. By mid-January, former Secretary General of the United Nations and now a member of the Global Elders, Kofi Annan arrived in Nairobi to broker peace talksi. Eventually, a power-sharing agreement was reached in February 2008, according to which Kibaki would remain President and Odinga would gain the new post of Prime Minister with both of them having equal decision making powers. A coalition government, with an equal number of ministers for both parties was named in April. Although it is not known which of the two legitimately won the election, this agreement seems to have worked, and a Truth, Justice and Reconciliation Commission has been established to investigate the events surrounding the 2007 election. As a positive sign, by-elections for five parliamentary seats held on 11 June 2008, passed peacefully.

Ideally, you should see your GP or travel clinic at least 6 weeks before your departure for general advice on travel risks, antibiotics for travellers’ bacterial diarrhoea, malaria and vaccinations. Make sure you have travel insurance, get a dental check (especially if you are going to be away for more than a month), know your own blood group and if you suffer from a long-term condition such as diabetes or epilepsy make sure someone knows or that you have a Medic Alert bracelet/necklace with this information on it.

Basic vaccinations recommended include polio, tetanus, diphtheria, typhoid, and hepatitis A. If you are entering the country overland, you may well be asked for a yellow fever vaccination certificate, and most certainly if you are coming from Tanzania.

http://www.bloodcare.org.uk. The Blood Care Foundation (UK) will dispatch certified non-infected blood of the right type to your hospital/clinic.

http://www.btha.org. British Travel Health Association (UK). This is the official website of an organization of travel health professionals.

http://www.fitfortravel.scot.nhs.uk. Fit for Travel (UK). A-Z of vaccine and travel health advice requirements for each country.

http://www.fco.gov.uk. Foreign and Common- wealth Office (FCO). This is a key travel advice site, with useful information on the country,

people and climate and lists of the UK embassies/consulates.

http://www.masta.org. Medical Advisory Service for Travellers Abroad (MASTA). A-Z of vaccine and travel health advice and requirements.

http://www.medicalert.co.uk. Medic Alert. Produces bracelets and necklaces for those with existing medical problems, where key medical details are engraved, so that if you collapse, a medical person can identify you.

http://www.travelscreening.co.uk. Travel Screening Services). A private clinic that gives vaccine and travel health advice.

http://www.who.int. World Health Organization. The WHO site has links to the WHO Blue Book on travel advice.

Kenya has several English-language newspapers. Generally, Kenyans are avid newspaper readers and each one has good online news. The most popular are the Daily Nation (http://www.nationaudio.com) and the East African Standard (http://www.eastandard.net). The East African (http://www.theeastafrican.co.ke) is a weekly newspaper sold throughout Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda. There is 1daily newspaper written in Kiswahili, Taifa Leo. The Kenya Times (http://www.kenyatimesonline.com) is the government-owned paper. Of the international press, Time and Newsweek are regularly available, as is the International Herald Tribune. UK daily newspapers arrive a day or so late in larger towns. Most newspapers and magazines are available from street stalls, of which there is one on every street in Nairobi.

Kenya Broadcasting Corporation (KBC) broadcasts in Kiswahili, English and some local languages. There are several popular FM stations that can be picked up in the cities such as Capital FM and Kiss 100 FM. BBC World Service is broadcast to Kenya; check http://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice.

There are 3 television channels: Kenya Broadcasting Corporation (KBC), broadcasts in Kiswahili and English with a considerable number of imported foreign programmes; Nation TV, which is the station of the newspaper of the same name and broadcasts news and imported shows from the US; and Kenya Television News, based on CNN material. Many hotels will have satellite TV. This is usually DSTV (Digital Satellite Television), South African satellite TV, with several channels. The most popular are the sports channels, especially Supersport, which provides coverage of European football.

In upmarket luxury lodges and tented camps expect to pay in excess of US$150 per person per night for a double, rising to US$500 per night per person in the most exclusive establishments. There are a number of places aimed at the very top-of-the-range tourist or honeymooner that charge nearer US$1000 per person per night. For this you will get impeccable service, cuisine and decor in fantastic locations either in the parks or on the coast. In 4- and 5-star hotels and lodges expect to spend US$200-300 a day. Careful tourists can live reasonably comfortably on US$100 a day staying in the mid-range places, however, to stay in anything other than campsites on safaris, they will have to spend a little more for the cheapest accommodation in the national parks. Budget travellers can get by on US$40 utilizing the cheap guesthouses and going on a basic camping safari. However, with additional park entry fees and related costs, organized camping safari costs are at the bare minimum US$200 for a 3-day/2-night excursion to the Masai Mara for example. Commodities such as chocolate and toiletries are more expensive as they are imported but are readily available. Restaurants vary widely from side-of-the-road local eateries where a simple meal of chicken and chips will cost US$2-3 to the upmarket restaurants in the cities and tourists spots that charge in excess of US$60 for 2 people with drinks.

Traveller’s cheques (TCs) are widely accepted, and many upmarket hotels, travel agencies, safari companies and restaurants accept credit cards. Most banks in Kenya are equipped to advance cash on credit cards, and increasingly most now have ATMs that accept Visa, Mastercard, Plus and Cirrus cards. Diners Club and American Express are, however, limited. Increasingly, many of the large petrol stations, such as Caltex and Mobil, are starting to install ATMs, especially in Nairobi and Mombasa. Your bank will probably charge a fee for withdrawing cash. It is quite feasible to travel around Kenya with just a credit or debit card, although it is always a good idea to bring some cash or TCs as a back-up.

The currency in Kenya is the Kenyan shilling (the written abbreviation is either KSh or using /= after the amount, ie 500/=). Notes are 50, 100, 200, 500 and 1000KSh, coins are 5, 10 and 20KSh. As it is not a hard currency, it cannot be brought into or taken out of the country, however there are no restrictions on the amount of foreign currency that can be brought into Kenya. There are banks with ATMs and bureaux de change at both Nairobi and Mombasa airports. There are inevitable queues but at Nairobi it is marginally quicker to change your money after you go through customs. The easiest currencies to exchange are US dollars, UK pounds and euros. If you are bringing US dollars cash, try and bring newer notes – because of the prevalence of forgery, many banks and bureaux de changes do not accept bills printed before 2000. Sometimes lower denomination bills attract a lower exchange rate than higher denominations.

Departure taxes can be paid in local or foreign currency, but they are usually included in the price of an air ticket.

Peregrine Travel, T+61 (0)3-8601 4444, http://www.peregrine.net.au.

African Wildlife Safaris, T+61 (0)3-9249 3777, http://www.africanwildlifesafaris.com.au.

Classic Safari Company, T+61 1 300- 130218, http://www.classicsafaricompany.com.au.

Bunyonyi Safaris Ltd, Crusader House, 3 Portal Av, PO Box 26905, Kampala, Uganda, T+256 (0)41-434 7460, http://www.bunyonyi.com. Arranges tours throughout Uganda.

Easy Travel & Tours Ltd, Raha Tower, Bibi Titi Mohamed St, Dar-Es-Salaam, Tanzania, T+255 (0)22-212 3526, http://www.easytravel.co.tz.

Predators Safari Club, PO Box 2302 Arusha, Tanzania, T+255 (0)27-250 6471/T+255 7545 62254 (mob), http://www.predators-safari.com. Offers safaris in Kenya and Tanzania.

Shoor Safaris, T+254 20-374 5690, http://www.shoortravel.com.

Djoser Travel, T+49 (0)21-920 1580, http://www.djoser.de.

A & E Reiseteam, T+49 (0)40-2787 8870, http://www.ae-reiseteam.de.

Iwanowski’s Individuelles Reisen GmbH, T+49 (0)21-332 6030, http://www.afrika.de.

Adventure Centre, T1 800-228 8747, T+1 51-0654 1879, http://www.adventure-centre.com.

Africa Adventure Company, T+1 800-882 9453, T+1 954-491 8877, http://www.africa-adventure.com.

Bushtracks, T+1 707-433 4492, http://www.bushtracks.com.

Menengai Holidays, T+1 704-904 1081, http://www.menengaiholidays.com.

Africa Travel Co, T+27 (0)21-385 1390, http://www.africatravelco.com.

Pulse Africa, T+27 (0)11-325 2290, http://www.pulseafrica.com.

Wild Frontiers, T+27 (0)11-702 2035, http://www.wildfrontiers.com.

Aardvark Safaris, T+44 (0)1980-849160, http://www.aardvarksafaris.com.

Abercrombie & Kent, T+44 (0)800-554 7016, http://www.abercrombiekent.com.

Acacia Adventure Holidays, lower ground floor, 23A Craven Terrace, London W2 3QH, T+44 (0)20-7706 4700, http://www.acacia-africa.com.

Africa Travel Centre, 3rd floor, New Premier House, 150 Southampton Row, London WC1B 5AL, T+44 (0)845-450 1520, http://www.africatravel.co.uk.

Africa Travel Resource, T+44 (0)1306-880 770, http://www.africatravelresource.com.

Aim 4 Africa, 21-23 Chelsea Rd, Sheffield, S11 9BQ, T+44 (0)114-255 2533, http://www.aim4africa.com.

Audley Travel Ltd, T+44 (0)1993-838 500, http://www.audleytravel.com.

Footprint Adventures, T+44 (0)1522-804 929, http://www.footprint-adventures.co.uk.

Global Village, 102 Islington High St, London N1 8EG, T+44 (0)844-844 2541, http://www.globalvillage-travel.com.

Odyssey World, T+44 (0)845-370 7733, http://www.odyssey-world.co.uk.

Rainbow Tours, T+44 (0)20-7226 1004, http://www.rainbowtours.co.uk.

Safari Consultants, T+44 (0)1787-888 590, http://www.safari-consultants.co.uk.

Safari Drive, Windy Hollow, Sheepdrove, Lambourn, Berkshire RH17 7XA, T+44 (0)1488-71140, http://www.safaridrive.com.

Somak, T+44 (0)20-8423 3000, http://www.somak.co.uk.

Steppes Travel, T+44 (0)1285-880 980, http://www.steppestravel.co.uk.

Tim Best Travel, T+44 (0)20-7591 0300, http://www.timbesttravel.com.

Wildlife Worldwide, T+44 (0)845-130 6982, http://www.wildlifeworldwide.com.

France, 11 Rue Blanche, Paris 75009, T+33 (0)1-5325 1207, kenya@interfacetourism.com.

Germany, Schwarz Bach Strasse 32, Mettman, T+49 (0)2-21048 32919, kenia@travelmarketing.de.

Italy, Via Monte Rosa 20, Milan 20149, T+39 (0)2 36561179, magicalkenya@aviareps.com.

Netherlands, Leliegracht 20, Amsterdam 1015, T+31 (0)20-638 4661, kenia@travelmc.com.

UK, Colechurch House, 1 London Bridge Walk, London SE1 2S6, T+44 (0)207-367 0900, kenya@hillsbalfoursynergy.com.

USA, 6422 City West Parkway, Minneapolis, 55344, T+1 866 445 3692, infousa@magiacalkenya.com.

http://www.africaonline.com. Comprehensive website of news, sport and travel over Africa.

http://www.ecotourismkenya.org. Website for the Ecotourism Society of Kenya, a forum founded in 1996 to provide support for small community ecotourism projects.

http://www.go2africa.com. Booking service for East Africa, with useful practical information.

http://www.katokenya.org.Website for the Kenyan Association of Tour Operators.

http://www.kenyalastminute.com. Bargain last-minute holidays to Kenya, excellent site and service.

http://www.kenyalogy.com. General tourism information.

http://www.kenyatravelideas.com. Comprehen- sive all-round information about Kenya and as the name suggest travel ideas.

http://www.kenya.go.ke. Website for the Kenyan government.

http://www.kws.org. Kenya Wildlife Services.

http://www.magicalkenya.com. Official website of the Kenya Tourist Board, comprehensive and detailed information.

http://www.mombasacoast.com. Tourist information, reservation service.

http://www.overlandafrica.com. Sells a variety of overland tours throughout East Africa.

http://www.shoortravel.com. Tour operator’s website offering maps, hotel listings, safaris and general information.

http://www.watamu.net. Information and booking services for coastal hotels.

Africa Travel Co, T021-385 1530, http://www.africatravelco.com.

Wildlife Adventures, T021-385 1530, http://www.wildlifeadventures.co.za.

Dragoman, T01728-861 133, http://www.dragoman.co.uk.

Exodus Travels, T020-8675 5550, http://www.exodus.co.uk.

Explore, T0845-0131 537, http://www.explore.co.uk.

Kumuka Expeditions,T0778-6201 144, http://www.kumuka.com.

Oasis Overland, T01963-363 400, http://www.oasisoverland.co.uk.

The most popular form of public transport in Kenya is the matatu, which has become a national icon and a large part of Kenyan modern culture. A matatu is a minibus, usually a Nissan, with a three-tonne capacity, hence the name matatu – tatu means ‘three’ in Kiswahili. Safety records for public transport have been pretty awful in the past with many road accidents involving overcrowded buses and matatus and some large derailments on the railways. However, since the government instigated new regulations in 2003, public transport in Kenya has undergone quite a transformation. While the vehicles introduced at the time are starting to show their age, overall they have contributed to positively getting the accident rate down. All buses, matatus, taxis and any vehicle carrying paying passengers must be licensed and have a yellow stripe around them, and matatus, which were once famously painted in lots of bright colours and murals, are now mostly uniformly white. Buses are still different colours, although each company has smartened up their image and many of the buses from the same fleet are in the same colour. Metro red buses have been introduced to Mombasa, and green City Hoppers in Nairobi, which are gradually taking over the old fleet of city buses. All public buses and matatus now have to be speed governed at 80 kph. Every vehicle has been fitted with seat belts and it is now law for every passenger in any vehicle to buckle up. Police issue on-the-spot fines to passengers who haven’t got seat belts on. The number of passengers has been governed to stop the overcrowding. In matatus this has been restricted to 15 passengers, all with their own seat, with a seat belt. The police also frequently stop the vehicles and count how many people are on board. The same goes for larger buses where standing is no longer permitted and everyone gets their own seat. These regulations have improved safety and comfort, meaning that it is now reasonable for independent travellers to move around Kenya on buses and matatus. There are lots of private bus companies operating in Kenya, and the system is very good on the whole, being reliable, running on time and offering cheap fares. In addition, the accident rate on the roads has fallen dramatically in recent years. The larger buses cover the long-distance routes and you will be able to reserve a seat a day in advance, whilst the matatus do the shorter distances and link the major towns and usually go when full. If you have problems locating the bus station, alternatively called bus stand or bus stage in Kenya, or finding the right bus in the bus station, just ask around and someone will direct you. In Nairobi and Mombasa city buses operate on set routes with formal bus stops, while matatus follow the same routes and can be flagged down anywhere.

Hotels and town centres are well served by taxis, some good and some very run-down but serviceable. Hotel staff, even at the smallest locations, will rustle up a taxi even when there is not one waiting outside. If you visit an out-of-town location, it is wise to ask the taxi to wait – it will normally be happy to do so for the benefit of the return fare. Up to 1 km should cost US$1. Very few of the cabs have meters, and you should establish the fare (bei gani? – how much?) before you set off. Prices are generally fair as drivers simply won’t take you if you offer a fare that’s too low. A common practice is a driver will set off and then go and get petrol using part of your fare to pay for it, so often the first part of a journey is spent sitting in a petrol station. Also be aware that seemingly taxi drivers never have change, so try and accumulate some small notes for taxi rides.

Overland truck safaris are a popular way of exploring Kenya by road. They demand a little more fortitude and adventurous spirit from the traveller, but the compensation is usually the camaraderie and life-long friendships that result from what is invariably a real adventure, going to places the more luxurious travellers will never visit. The standard overland route most commercial trucks take through East Africa (in either direction) is from Nairobi: a two-week circuit into Uganda to see the mountain gorillas via some of the Kenya national parks, then crossing into Tanzania to Arusha for the Ngorongoro Crater and Serengeti, before heading south to Dar es Salaam, for Zanzibar. If you have more time, you can complete the full circuit that goes from Tanzania through Malawi and Zambia to Livingstone to see the Victoria Falls, and then another three weeks from there to Cape Town in South Africa via Botswana and Namibia. There are several overland companies and there are departures almost weekly from Nairobi, Livingstone and Cape Town throughout the year.

From southern Africa both Kenya Airways and South African Airways have daily flights between Johannesburg and Nairobi. Just about all of the African airlines serve Nairobi, so it’s a good hub to travel onwards to other African cities.

Between them Qantas and SAA, on a code-share agreement, fly between Auckland, Sydney, Melbourne and Perth, and Johannesburg and there are several flights a week. Singapore Airlines code share with Air New Zealand, and flights link Wellington with Johannesburg via Sydney and Singapore. Malaysia Airlines has regular flights from Perth, Melbourne, Sydney and Darwin in Australia and Auckland in New Zealand to Kuala Lumpur, connecting with a flight to Johannesburg three times a week. Cathay Pacific flies to Johannesburg from Hong Kong once a week. From Johannesburg there are daily connections to Nairobi on both Kenya Airways and South African Airways, as above.

Airlines with daily direct services from Europe to Nairobi included the national carrier Kenya Airways, which flies from London, Amsterdam and Paris; British Airways; KLM; and Virgin Atlantic. Non-direct flights from Europe may work out economical and Egypt Air offers very good deals via Cairo, Emirates, via Dubai, and Ethiopian Airlines via Addis Ababa.

There are no direct flights from the USA to Kenya. Americans have to change flights in Europe or the Middle East depending on which carrier they choose. It is usual to fly via London, Amsterdam or Dubai if travelling from the USA. Alternatively, Delta Airlines has a code-share agreement with South African Airways, who run daily direct flights from Atlanta to Johannesburg, from where there are connections to Nairobi. By the time you read this, Delta might be flying directly from New York to Nairobi via Dakar in Senegal so it’s worth enquiring.

Flight Centre, T133-133 (Australia), http://www.flightcentre.com.au.

Skylinks, T02-923 4277, http://www.skylink.com.au.

STA Travel, T134-782 (Australia), http://www.statravel.com.au, T0800-474 400, http://www.statravel.com.nz

Travel.com.au, T1300-130 482, http://www.travel.com.au.

Air Brokers International, T01-800 883-3273, http://www.airbrokers.com.

STA Travel, T1800-781 4040, http://www.statravel.com.

Travel Cuts, T1866-246 9762 (Canada), http://www.travelcuts.com.

Flightbookers, T0871-223 5000, http://www.ebookers.com.

Flight Centre, T0870-499 9931, http://www.flightcentre.co.uk.

STA Travel, T0871-2300 0040, http://www.statravel.co.uk.

Trailfinders, T0845-0585858, http://www.trailfinders.com.

Travelbag, T0800-804 8911, http://www.travelbag.co.uk.

The crossing is at Moyale, between Marsabit and Addis Ababa . The road from Isiolo up to the border is rough, particularly in the wet. Also, because of armed robberies in recent years, vehicles are required to travel in armed convoys on part of this road between Isiolo and Moyale. There is no public transport north of Isiolo so the only option is to hitch a lift from truck drivers on the route, but trucks are very infrequent.

In more tranquil times it has been possible to take a bus from Kismayo to the border at Liboi, and then on to Garissa, or from Mogadishu to Mandera, and then on to Wajir. These crossings are currently not an option for travellers as a result of the civil war in Somalia and public transport on this route has been largely suspended.

In principle it is possible to cross from Lokichokio to Juba, many of whom are transporting aid into southern Sudan. During the civil war Lokichokio was the main United Nations base monitoring the situation in Southern Sudan. There’s an immigration office north of town where you will have to get a Kenyan visa if coming from Sudan, and get stamped out of Kenya if going to Sudan. You’ll need to have got a visa for Sudan before arrival here as they are not issued at the border. The road from the border to Juba was retarred and de-mined in 2008.

The main road crossing is at Namanga . As this border receives thousands of tourists on safari each week en route between the Kenyan and Tanzanian parks, it is reasonably quick and efficient. Other crossings are at Lunga Lunga, page , between Mombasa and Dar es Salaam on a recently improved road. There is also a crossing at Taveta, page and Isebania, page . The border crossing from Masai Mara Park into the Serengeti is currently closed.

Buses run from Nairobi to Kampala, crossing at Malaba and Busia .

An alternative to going on an organized safari is to self-drive on a do-it-yourself safari. However, because of the entry fees for vehicles this does not necessarily work out cheaper but it is a good option if you are confident about driving on the poorly maintained tracks within the parks and are prepared to camp. Costs can be favourable compared to an organized safari for a family or group. Some of the parks are better for self-drive than others. For example, Lake Nakuru and Nairobi national parks are easily negotiable in a car and are a pleasure to drive around, whilst others, such as the Masai Mara or Tsavo, have rough roads and there are remote areas where you certainly do not want to get stuck in the event of a breakdown or emergency. On your own safari remember that you will need to budget for vehicle, camping and entry fees and load your Smartcard with the relevant costs. It is a good idea to discuss your itinerary with the staff at the Kenya Wildlife Services head office in Nairobi and they will advise on the fees. In the parks there is also the option to hire a guide from the park HQ for half or a full day to accompany you in your own vehicle.

There are a number of alternative safari options in Kenya. Whilst Kenya has always involved the local communities in park management, in recent years there have been some excellent conservation initiatives in Kenya that have involved and benefited local communities and have proved instrumental in the protection of the wildlife. An excellent example is the Laikipia Plateau where commercial ranches have turned their land into successful game farms and where new tourist lodges provide employment and other benefits to the local people. Many tour operators and lodges have also adopted cultural or environmental policies – worth thinking about when choosing a safari operator. There are a range of tours and establishments to visit away from the national parks that offer more unusual wildlife watching activities, such as tracking rhino and elephant, walking and trekking safaris with camels and Masai or Samburu guides, or horse- or mountain-bike safaris.

How much to tip the driver and guide is tricky. It is best to enquire from the company what the going rate is. As a rough guide you should allow about 10% of your safari cost. Always try to come to an agreement with other members of the group and put the tip into a kitty. Remember that wages are low and there can be long lay-offs during the low season. Despite this there is also the problem of over tipping, which can cause problems for future clients being asked to give more than they should. If you are on a camping safari and have a cook, give all the money to the guide and leave him to sort out the split.

It is worth emphasizing that most parks are some way from departure points, and obviously the longer you spend actually in the parks, rather than just driving to and from them, the better. If you go on a three-day safari by road, you will often find that at least one day is taken up with travelling to and from the park, often on bad bumpy and dusty roads – leaving you with a limited amount of time in the park itself. The easiest option, which is of course the most expensive, is to fly and most parks and reserves have a good network of airstrips and there are daily flights. This gives you the optimum time game viewing in the parks themselves.

There are campsites in most national parks. They are extensively used by camping safari companies. Vehicles, guides, tents and equipment, as well as food and a cook, are all provided. They are often most attractively sited, perhaps in the elbow of a river course but always with plenty of shade. Birds are plentiful and several hours can be whiled away birdwatching. Some campsites have attached to them a few bandas or huts run by the park where you may be able to shower. Toilet facilities can be primitive – the ‘long drop’, a basic hole in a concrete slab, being very common. Most camps are guarded but despite this you should be careful to ensure that valuables are not left unattended. If you are camping on your own, you will almost always need to be totally self-sufficient with all your own equipment. The campsites usually provide running water and firewood. Camping should always have minimal impact on the environment. All rubbish and waste matter should be buried, burnt, or taken away with you. Do not leave food scraps or containers where they may attract and harm animals. Campers should also take care of wildlife. Do not leave fruit or other food inside tents, it can attract monkeys, baboons, and even in some areas elephants, resulting in destruction.

These vary and may be either typical hotels with rooms and facilities in one building or individual bandas or rondavels (small huts) with a central dining area. Standards vary from the rustic to the modern, from the simply appointed to the last word in luxury. Efforts are usually made to design lodges that blend into their environment, with an emphasis on natural local building materials and use of traditional art and decoration. Most lodges serve meals and have lounges and bars, often with excellent views or overlooking waterholes or salt licks that attract game. Many have resident naturalists, as well as guides for organized walks or game drives.

A luxury tented camp is really the best of both worlds. They are usually built with a central dining area. Each tent will have a thatched roof to keep it cool inside, proper beds and a veranda and they will often have a small bathroom at the back with solar-heated hot water. But at the same time you will have the feeling of being in the heart of Africa and at night you will hear animals surprisingly close by. Tented camps can be found in many of Kenya’s national parks and game reserves, as well as on private game ranches and sanctuaries.