Egypt travel guide

Closely linked to the mosque in both religious and architectural form is the madresa, a college of higher education in which Islamic teachings lead the syllabus. The institution originated in Persia and developed in the West in the 13th century. The construction of places of advanced learning was a response by orthodox Sunni Islam to the growth of Shi’ite colleges but they soon became important centres in their own right as bastions of orthodox Islamic beliefs. Subjects other than theology were taught at the madresa but only in a limited form and in ways that made them adjuncts to Sunni teachings and acceptable to a very conservative religious hierarchy. Unfortunately, therefore, the madresa became associated with a rather uninspired and traditional academic routine in which enquiry and new concepts were often excluded. Muslim scholars believe that knowledge and its transmission sadly fell into the hands of the least academic members of the theological establishment. The poor standards of science, politics, arts and ethics associated with the Arab world in the period since the 13th century is put down by some Arab academics to the lack of innovation and experiment in the madresa, a situation which has only very recently begun to break down in Sunni Islam. It can, however, be argued that formal Islam needed firm basic teachings in the face of rapidly expanding popular Islam and its extravagant Sufi beliefs.

The shortcomings of the madresa in creative teaching terms were in part compensated for by the development of the college buildings themselves. The Egyptian style before the beginning of the 10th century was based on norms borrowed from Syria and Iraq but after that time was mainly modelled on a more Mediterranean tradition with use of a high domed roof as in the mosque of Al-Guyushi in the military area above Sharia Al-Muqqatam in Cairo. The small courtyard is separated from the sahn by a vaulted transect. The Al-Azhar Mosque complex in old Cairo began life as a principal congregational mosque but become a great teaching university for Islam, much added to and altered and thus at the apex of the madresa form. Other fine architectural works can be seen at the Sultan Barquq Madresa in Cairo with its marbled entry and wonderful four-liwan courtyard and the Madresa of Tatar Al-Higaziya with its ribbed stone dome.

At the heart of Islamic architecture is the mosque. The elaboration of Islamic architecture centring on the mosque took place despite the men of the Arab conquest being essentially unlettered nomads and warriors. To redress the shortcomings of the Arab armies, their rulers imported skilled architects, masons and tile workers from established centres of excellence in the empire – Persians, Armenians and others. Together these itinerant teams of artisans and their Islamic patrons developed a wonderful and distinct style of building form and decoration which are among the great legacies of Islam, especially in its early innovative period.

Although there was some inertia in the architectural style/practices and building techniques in Islamic Egypt, aided by the Ottoman imperial practice of adopting local building types without change, the private houses belonging to great families and powerful personages showed much individuality alongside strong elements of continuity. All houses had a central courtyard or waset al-dar, with perhaps a columned area, fountain, water basin and even trees, which was reached indirectly through a corridor from the street. The house entrance was usually via a studded door to a lobby or pair of small rooms designed to ensure that no-one from the street could either view or easily enter the inner courtyard or rooms. Around the central courtyard were clustered all the principal rooms, including in large houses a collection of family rooms set around a main living space or an area to give family privacy to visitors. These groups of rooms had a small courtyard and may be seen as the successors to the peri-styles of Graeco-Roman houses in North Africa or to the Perso-Ottoman haivans. Libraries were important in the houses of public figures, while some great houses had internal hammam or bath areas.

Naturally, there was a large staff and housing for it in establishments of this kind to service the kitchen, the daily needs of the resident family and the transport/guard functions necessary for a public figure. The harem was kept distant from the public rooms and often near the baths. Kitchens, stores, water well/storage, stables and accommodation for servants took up considerable space. Egyptian great houses of the 18th and 19th centuries rarely had a developed upper storey, though roof areas were accessed by stairways and used for laundry, the drying of fruits and for water gathering for the cistern below. Open space within the house was often generous in scale. A fine example of the classical Egyptian house can be seen at the House of Zaynab Khatun in Sharia Mohammed ‘Abduh near the Al-Azhar Mosque. This building was first laid out in 1468 for Mithqal Al-Suduni, a minister of Sultan Jaqmaqis, and has Ottoman additions. It was restored in the 1950s and is open to the public. There are many fine historic houses in various states of repair in Cairo which are rarely seen by visitors simply because they are over shadowed by so many wonderfully attractive public buildings. As a sample of early housing, visit the Gayer-Anderson Museum entered from the southeast corner of the Ahmed Ibn Tulun. The museum is in what are two restored houses of the 16th century and 17th century, with a number of fine features such as a screened balcony (mashrabiyyah) and marbled sitting room. Sadly many of the older grand houses in diverse styles borrowed from France, Greece and Italy of the 18th and 19th century have been demolished and few examples remain for which there is public access. In Ismailia look out the house of de Lesseps on Mohammed Ali Quay as an example of ‘colonial period’ housing.

Dress traditions in Egypt are a striking and colourful evidence of a rich cultural heritage. Here, as in all societies, dress is a powerful form of cultural expression, a visual symbol which reveals a wealth of information about the wearer. Dress also reflects historical evolution and the cumulative effects of religious, ethnic and geographical factors on a society.

The many influences which have shaped Middle Eastern history have produced an equally diverse dress culture in which elements from antiquity, the Islamic world and Europe are found. The heritage from earlier times is a rich blending of decorative motifs and drapery. Carthaginian material culture drew upon local traditions of colourful geometric ornament, which is still seen in Berber clothing and textiles, and luxury goods from Egypt. Greek and Roman fashions have survived in the striking dress of the inhabitants of the deserts and mountains. The Arabs introduced a different dress tradition, influenced by the styles of Egypt and Syria. Here the main features were loose flowing robes and cloaks, wrapped turbans and headcoverings which combined a graceful line, comfort and modest concealment. The establishment of Islamic cities encouraged a diverse range of professions and occupations – civil and religious authorities, merchants, craftsmen – all with their distinctive dress. Within cities such as Cairo specialist trades in textiles, leather and jewellery supported dress production. Widening political and commercial relations stimulated new elements in dress.

The Ottoman Turks introduced another feature into city dress, in the form of jackets, trousers and robes of flamboyant cut and lavishly embroidered decoration. Finally European fashion, with emphasis on tailored suits and dresses entered the scene. The intricate pattern of mixed dress styles reflects an adjustment to economic and social change.

The widest range is seen in urban environments where European styles mingle with interpretations of local dress and the clothing of regional migrants. Men have adopted European dress to varying degrees. The wardrobes of civil servants, professional and business men include well-cut sober European suits worn with shirts, ties and smart shoes. Seasonal variations include fabrics of lighter weight and colour and short-sleeved shirts and ‘safari’ jackets.

Men’s city dress alternates between European and local garments according to taste and situation. Traditional dress is based on a flexible combination of loose flowing garments and wraps which gives considerable scope for individuality. One of the most versatile garments is the gallabiyya, an ankle-length robe with long straight sleeves and a neat pointed hood, made in fabrics ranging from fine wool and cotton in dark and light colours to rough plain and striped homespun yarn. Elegant versions in white may be beautifully cut and sewn and edged with plaited silk braid. A modern casual version has short sleeves and a V-shaped neck and is made of poly-cotton fabric in a range of plain colours. Professional men may change from a suit into a gallabiyya at home, while working class men may wear a plain or striped gallabiyya in the street over European shirt and trousers.

A handsome and dignified garment worn by high-ranking state and religious officials is the kaftan, another long robe with very wide sleeves and a round neck. The cut and detail, such as the use of very fine braid around the neck and sleeves and along the seams, are more formal than those of the gallabiyya. The modern kaftan has narrower sleeves and is worn in public by men of an older and more conservative generation. Traditional dress may be completed with the addition of drapery. Examples include the selham or burnous, a wide semicircular cloak with a pointed hood and the ksa, a length of heavy white woollen cloth which is skilfully folded and wrapped around the head and body in a style resembling that of the classical Roman toga.

Headcoverings are a revealing indication of status and personal choice. A close-fitting red wool felt pillbox cap, a fez, tarboosh or chechia, with a black tassle is rarely seen in Egypt now. The distinctive, often checked, headsquare (kiffiyeh) of the Bedouin is secured by a heavy double coil (igal) of black wool. The ends of the cloth may hang loose or be wrapped around the face and neck for protection against heat or cold. The more traditional loose turban of a length of usually white, less commonly brown, cotton is widespread in Egypt, worn by a wide selection of the working men.

Women’s town dress is also a mixture of traditional and modern European forms and depends on wealth, status and personal taste. In the larger cities where women are employed in business and professions, European clothes (modest long-sleeved blouses and long skirts) are worn, accessorized with scarves and jewellery.

The dynamic history of the region has produced imaginative traditional designs mixed with foreign elements leading to a range of decoration few regions in the world can rival. Influences from the Phoenicians, Greeks and Romans, Arabs and Andalusians have each contributed subtly to the immense range of jewellery found in Egypt.

Although some urban dwellers have adopted Western attitudes to dress and decoration, at times of festivals and especially for marriage ceremonies, traditional dress and elaborate jewellery that has changed little since the Middle Ages is still worn. The increase of tourism, while in some cases destroying traditional values, is in fact promoting and preserving crafts, especially jewellery making, by providing an eager and lucrative market for ornaments that was rapidly declining. Unfortunately, with the changes of cultural values, changes in fashion and style also occur and unfortunately large quantities of old, exquisite silver jewellery have been destroyed to provide raw materials for new pieces.

There is a division of tastes and wealth between towns where gold is favoured and the countryside where silver predominates. Basically, traditional styles continue to be popular and jewellery tends to become more traditional the further south one goes. A general shift can be discerned away from silver towards gold, as it is now believed to be a better investment. According to Islamic law, silver is the only pure metal recommended by the Prophet Mohammed. For the majority of Muslims this sanction is felt to apply only to men who do not, as a rule, wear any jewellery other than a silver wedding ring or seal ring.

Despite a whole field of inspiration being forbidden to Muslim jewellers, that of the human form, they developed the art of decorating jewellery in ways that eventually merged to become a distinctive ‘Islamic’ style. Using floral (arabesque), animal, geometric and calligraphic motifs fashioned on gold and silver with precious and semi-precious gems, coral and pearls they worked their magic.

Every town has its own jewellery souk. There is almost always a distinction between the goldsmiths and the silversmiths and there are also shops, designated in Egypt by a brass camel over the door, which produce jewellery in brass or gold plate on brass for the cheap end of the market.

The tourist industry keeps whole sections of the jewellery business in work producing designs which have a historical base: predominantly the scarab, the ankh (the symbol of eternal life), the Eye of Horus, Nefertiti’s head and hieroglyphic cartouches. The jewellery spans the entire range of taste and quality from the very cheap mass-produced pendants to finely crafted very expensive pieces. Jewellers also sell a great number of silver items, at the cheaper end of the tourist market, as ‘ethnic’ jewellery. Gold and silver jewellery is usually sold by weight and, although there might be an additional charge for more intricate craftmanship, this means the buyer must judge quality very carefully.

The earring is by far the most popular and convenient ornament. It appears in an infinite variety of styles with the crescent moon shape being the most common. This is closely followed by the bracelet or bangle which is also very much part of a woman’s everyday wardrobe.

Most of the jewellery is worn both as an adornment and as an indication of social status or rank. It generally has some symbolic meaning or acts as a charm. Jewellery is usually steeped in tradition and is often received in rites of passage like puberty, betrothal and marriage. Women receive most of their jewellery upon marriage. This is usually regarded as their sole property and is security against personal disaster.

Many of the symbols recurrent in jewellery have meanings or qualities which are thought to be imparted to the wearer. Most of the discs appearing in the jewellery represent the moon which is considered to be the embodiment of perfect beauty and femininity. The greatest compliment is to liken a woman to the full moon. Both the moon and the fish are considered as fertility symbols. The crescent is the symbol of Islam but its use actually predates Islam. It is the most common symbol throughout the region and acquires greater Islamic significance with the addition of a star inside. Other symbols frequently seen are the palm and the moving lizard both of which signify life and the snake which signifies respect.

Amulets are thought to give the wearer protection from the unknown, calamities and threats. They are also reckoned to be curative and to have power over human concerns such as longevity, health, wealth, sex and luck. Women and children wear amulets more frequently as their resistance to evil is considered to be weaker than that of a man.

The most popular amulets are the Hirz, the Eye and the Khamsa or hand. The Hirz is a silver box containing verses of the Koran. Egypt in particular has a preoccupation with the Eye as an amulet to ward off the ‘evil eye’, usually modelled on the Eye of Horus which, as with most symbols in Ancient Egyptian jewellery, has always had mystical connotations. The Khamsa is by far the most widespread of the amulets, coming in a multitude of sizes and designs of a stylized hand. This hand represents the ‘Hand of Fatima’, Mohammed’s favourite daughter. Koranic inscriptions also form a large section of favoured pendants and are usually executed in gold and also heavily encrusted with diamonds and other precious stones.

Coins or mahboub form the basis of most traditional jewellery, from the veils of the Bedouins of the Nile Delta to the bodices of the women from the Egyptian oases. Spectacular ensembles are worn at festivals and wedding ceremonies. Each area, village or tribe has its own unique and extraordinary dress of which jewellery, be it huge amber beads as in Sudan or hundreds of coins, forms a fundamental part.

Among the more interesting items are anklets called khul khal, worn in pairs and found in a great variety of styles. In Egypt they are mostly of solid silver fringed with tiny bells. Fine examples are expensive due to their weight. They are losing popularity among the younger generation as they are cumbersome to wear with shoes and because of their undertones of subservience and slavery. It is still possible to see them being worn by married women in the more remote villages of Egypt.

Champollion’s and his academic successors’ work on the ancient languages of the pharaonic period have opened up official state and private stores of written materials on which work still remains to be done. The pre-Islamic Egyptian tradition was preserved through to the present day to an extent in Coptic liturgies and there is hope for a renaissance in a broader literature now that Coptic is again being taught in religious schools.

Cairo in the 19th century witnessed a remarkable expansion of literary activity under internal pressures of embryonic nationalism and the impact of Western cultural and scientific influences in the so-called ‘modernist’ movement. Expansion was greatly assisted by the exploitation of machine printing presses. Poetry, biography and history became the staple element in Arabic literature of the 20th century. There was also an explosion of interest in political affairs as literacy spread and anti-colonial attitudes deepened. New literary forms were adopted such as the novel, the most influential of which was Zaynab by Husayn Haykal published in 1914 dealing with human relations and the pastoral theme.

Of course, the number of non-Arab Arabic readers is limited and most educated people outside the Muslim world come into contact with Egyptian literature in translation; the novels of Nobel Prize winner Naguib Mahfouz are a case in point. Mahfouz ran foul of the conservative religious establishment in Egypt and was very badly hurt in 1994 by an Islamist assassin responding to a judgment issued against him by a fundamentalist cleric. He wrote less from that time until his death in 2006, but much of his work remains to be published in translation.

The Copts take their name from a corruption of the Greek word aigupioi for Egyptian. They were concentrated in the region from Girga to Assiut and had a community in Old Cairo until recently. Nowadays many have moved to the metropolitan area of Cairo and its suburbs. The number of Christians of all kinds in contemporary Egypt is put officially at 3.5 million but is thought to be much larger in reality (at around 6 million), of which the majority (4.4 million) are of the Coptic Church. There are also some 90,000 members of the Alexandrian rite, affiliated to Rome and quite separate from the Coptic Church proper.

The Coptic language is no longer spoken. It originated from the language spoken in Egypt in the early Christian era, at that time written in Greek characters. Although there were regional variations in the Coptic language, by the fifth century AD they had merged into a universal form throughout Egypt. The language has been in disuse since the sixth century as a working language though it survived in use in religious rituals. Arabic is the language of the Coptic church services.

The Coptic Church is very old – for it is believed that St Mark, author of the gospel, preached in Egypt during the time of Emperor Nero and founded a church in Alexandria. He is considered the first patriarch. The Coptic Church is close in belief and form to the Armenian, Ethiopian and Syrian Orthodox rites and differs from Rome which believes in the dual nature of Christ and God while the Copts believe in the unity of the two. The Arab invasion of Egypt in the seventh century put the Coptic Church under siege and made it a minority religion in the country. It survived, however, despite some persecution.

Islam is an Arabic word meaning ‘submission to God’. As Muslims often point out, it is not just a religion but a total way of life. The main Islamic scripture is the Koran or Quran, the name being taken from the Arabic al-qur’an (the recitation). The Koran is divided into 114 sura, or ‘units’. It is for Muslims the infallible word of God revealed to the Prophet Mohammed.

The practice of Islam is based upon five central tenets, known as the Pillars of Islam: Shahada (profession of faith), Salat (worship), Zakat (charity), saum (fasting) and Hajj (pilgrimage). The mosque is the centre of religious activity. The two most important mosque officials are the imam (leader) and the khatib (preacher) who delivers the Friday sermon.

The Shahada is the confession, and lies at the core of any Muslim’s faith. It involves reciting, sincerely, two statements: ‘There is no god, but God’, and ‘Mohammed is the Messenger [Prophet] of God’. A Muslim will do this at every Salat. This is the prayer ritual which is performed five times a day, including sunrise, midday and sunset. There is also the important Friday noon worship. The Salat is performed by a Muslim bowing and then prostrating himself in the direction of Mecca (qibla). In hotel rooms throughout the Muslim world there is nearly always a little arrow, painted on the ceiling – or sometimes inside a wardrobe – indicating the direction of Mecca and labelled ‘qibla’. The faithful are called to worship by a mosque official. Beforehand, a worshipper must wash to ensure ritual purity.

A third essential element of Islam is Zakat – charity or alms-giving. A Muslim is supposed to give up his ‘surplus’ (according to the Koran); through time this took on the form of a tax levied according to the wealth of the family. Good Muslims are expected to contribute a tithe to the Muslim community.

The fourth pillar of Islam is saum or fasting. The daytime month-long fast of Ramadan is a time of contemplation, worship and piety – the Islamic equivalent of Lent. Muslims are expected to read 1/30th of the Koran each night. Muslims who are ill or on a journey have dispensation from fasting, but otherwise they are only permitted to eat during the night until ‘so much of the dawn appears that a white thread can be distinguished from a black one’.

The Hajj or pilgrimmage to the holy city of Mecca in Saudi Arabia is required of all Muslims once in their lifetime if they can afford to make the journey and are physically able to do so. It is restricted to a certain time of the year, beginning on the eighth day of the Muslim month of Dhu-I-Hijja. Men who have been on the Hajj are given the title Haji, and women Hajjah.

Fatimid power in Egypt did not endure for long. They were forced to rely on a slave army recruited from the Turks of Central Asia and from the Sudanese. They found it increasingly difficult to control these forces and, eventually, became their victims. In 1073 AD, the commander of the Fatimid army in Syria, which had been recalled to restore order in Egypt, took power and the Fatimid caliph was left only with the prestige of his office.

Despite Fatimid concerns in the Middle East, the caliph in Cairo decided to return North Africa to Fatimid control. Lacking the means to do this himself, he used instead two tribes recently displaced from Syria and at that time residing in the Nile Delta – the Banu Sulaim and the Banu Hillal – as his troops. The invasions took place slowly over a period of around 50 years, starting in AD 1050 or 1051, and probably involved no more than 50,000 individuals.

The first of the great dynasties that was to determine the future of North Africa did not, however, originate inside the region. Instead it used North Africa as a stepping stone towards its ambitions of taking over the Muslim world and imposing its own variant of Shi’a Islam. North Africa, because of its radical and egalitarian Islamic traditions, appears to have been the ideal starting point. The group concerned were the Isma’ilis who split off from the main body of Shi’a Muslims in AD 765.

The Fatimids took control over what had been Aghlabid Ifriquiya, founding a new capital at Mahdia in AD 912. Fatimid attention was concentrated on Egypt and, in AD 913-914, a Fatimid army temporarily occupied Alexandria. The Fatimids also developed a naval force and their conquest of Sicily in the mid-10th century provided them with a very useful base for attacks on Egypt.

After suppressing a Kharejite-Sunni rebellion in Ifriquiya between AD 943 and AD 947, the Fatimids were ready to plan the final conquest of Egypt. This took place in AD 969 when the Fatimid general, Jawhar, succeeded in subduing the country. The Fatimids moved their capital to Egypt, where they founded a new urban centre, Al-Qahira (from which the modern name, Cairo, is derived) next to the old Roman fortress of Babylon and the original Arab settlement of Fustat.

The Mamluks were a class of Turkish slave-soldiers. The first Mamluk Dynasty, the Bahri Mamluks, were excellent administrators and soldiers. They expanded their control of the Levant and the Hijaz and extended their influence into Nubia. They cleared the Crusaders out of the Levant and checked the Mongol advance into the Middle East in the 1250s. They also improved Egypt’s economy and developed its trading links with Europe and Asia. Indeed, the fact that the Mamluks were able to control and profit from the growing European trade with the Far East via Egypt was a major factor in their economic success.

In Egypt, the Ottoman administration soon found itself struggling against the unreconstructed remnants of Mamluk society, with the province frequently splitting into two units, each controlled by a different section of the Mamluk Dynasty. By 1786, the Ottomans had destroyed the Mamluk factions and restored central control. In 1798, Napoleon’s army conquered Egypt, delivering a profound cultural shock to the Muslim world by demonstrating, in the most graphic manner, the technological superiority of Europe. In 1805 Mohammed Ali was appointed governor and lost no time in breaking away from the Ottoman Empire to found a new dynasty, the Khedivate, which remained in power for nearly 150 years.

Mohammed Ali sought to modernize Egypt and to expand its power. He brought in European military advisors, destroyed the remnants of the old political elite in Egypt and instituted wide-ranging economic reforms. In the Sudan, Mohammed Ali’s Egypt was more successful; after the initial invasion in 1820, some 40 years were spent consolidating Egyptian rule, although, in 1881, the experiment failed .

The Ottomans emerged with some strength from the northwest heartlands of Anatolia in the 15th century. By 1453 they controlled the lands of the former Byzantine Empire and 65 years later took over Syria and Egypt before expanding deep into Europe, Africa and the Arab Middle East. The Syrian and Egyptian districts became economically and strategically important parts of the empire with their large populations, fertile arable lands and trade links.

Egypt was a valued part of the Ottoman Empire, ownership of which provided the Sublime Porte (the Ottoman Court at Constantinople) with control over the Nile Valley, the east Mediterranean and North Africa. Power was exercised through governors appointed from Constantinople, but over the centuries an Egyptian, mainly Mamluk (of Caucasian origin) elite imposed itself as the principal political force within the country and detached the area from the direct control of the Ottomans. In most areas of the empire, the ability of the sultan to influence events diminished with distance from the main garrison towns and a great deal of independent action was open to local rulers and tribal chiefs outside the larger towns.

The great benefit of the Ottoman Empire was its operation as an open economic community with freedom of movement for citizens and goods. Traders exploited the Ottoman monopoly of land routes from the Mediterranean to Asia to handle the spice, gold and silk from the East, manufactures from Europe and the slave and gold traffic from Africa. Ottoman tolerance of Christian and Jewish populations led in Palestine/Syria to the growth of large settlements of non-Muslims. Arabic continued as the local language and Islamic culture was much reinforced. Elaborate mosques were added to the already diverse architectural heritage. Outside the larger towns, however, pastoralism, farming and parochial affairs remained the major occupation of the people and cultural and other changes were slow to occur.

The bird life in the region is increased in number and interest by birds of passage. There are four categories of birds. Firstly, there are 150 species of resident birds, such as the crested lark and the Sardinian warbler. Resident birds are found mainly in the fertile strip of the Nile Valley and in the Nile Delta. There are surprisingly few in the oases. Secondly, there are the summer visitors, such as the swift and swallow, which spend the winter months south of the equator. Winter visitors, on the other hand, breed in Northern Europe but come south to escape the worst of the winter and include many varieties of owl, wader and wildfowl. Passage migrants fly through the area northwards in spring and then return southwards in increased numbers after breeding in the autumn. Small birds tend to migrate on a broad front, often crossing the desert and the Mediterranean Sea without stopping. Such migrants include the whitethroat, plus less common species such as the nightjar and wryneck. Larger birds, including eagles, storks and vultures, must adopt a different strategy, as they depend on soaring, rather than sustained flight. They rely on thermals created over land, so must opt for short sea crossings following the Nile Valley, Turkey and the Bosphorus.

There are a number of typical habitats with their own assemblage of birds. The Mediterranean itself has a poor selection of sea birds, although the rare Audouin’s gull always excites twitchers. Oceanic birds such as gannets and shearwaters, however, over-winter here. The Red Sea coast hosts the indigenous white-eyed gull and white-cheeked tern, migrant pelicans, gregarious flamingos and, near Hurghada, brown boobies. Ospreys breed on the nearby Isle of Tiran.

Wetland areas attract numerous varieties of the heron family such as the night heron and squacco heron, while spoonbill, ibis and both little and cattle egrets are common. Waders such as the avocet and black-winged stilt are also typical wetland birds. The species are augmented in winter by a vast collection of wildfowl. Resident ducks, however, are confined to specialities such as the white-headed duck, marbled teal and Ferruginous duck. On roadsides, the crested lark is frequently seen, while overhead wires often contain corn buntings, with their jangling song, and the blue-cheeked and green bee-eaters. Mountain areas are ideal for searching out raptors. There are numerous varieties of eagle, including Bonelli’s, booted, short-toed and golden. Of the vultures, the griffon is the most widely encountered. The black kite is more catholic in its choice of habitat, but the Montagu’s harrier prefers open farmland.

The desert and steppe areas have their own specialist resident birds which have developed survival strategies. Raptors include the long-legged buzzard and the lanner, which prefer mountain areas. The Arabian rock pigeon of Sinai is a protected species. Among the ground-habitat birds are the houbara bustard and the cream-coloured courser. Duponts lark is also reluctant to fly, except during its spectacular courtship display. The trumpeter finch is frequently seen at oases, while the insectivorous desert wheatear is a typical bird of the erg and reg regions.

Mammals have a difficult existence throughout the area, due to human disturbance and the fact that the species is not well adapted to drought. Many have, therefore, become nocturnal and their presence may only be indicated by droppings and tracks. Mammals represented here include the red fox which is common in the Delta, the sand fox, a lighter coloured hare, the shrew and two species of hedgehog, the long-eared and the desert. The appealing large-eyed and large-eared desert fox or fennec is less common and is often illegally trapped for sale. Despite widespread hunting, wild boar survive. Hyenas and jackals still thrive particularly in Sinai, while wild cats are also found in Sinai and the Delta. The leopard, formerly common in North Africa, is now extremely rare, but is occasionally seen in some isolated regions in Sinai, often to the panic of the local people.

There are three species of gazelle, all well adapted to desert conditions; the dorcas gazelle preferring the Western Desert, the mountain gazelle inhabiting locations above 2000 m in Sinai and the desert gazelle locating in the reg of the northern Sahara. The latter is often hunted by horse or vehicle, its only defence being its speed. There are over 30 species of bat in the area, all but one – the Egyptian Fruit bat – being insectivorous. Recent ringing has shown that bats will migrate according to the season and to exploit changing food sources. Many species of bat have declined disastrously in recent years due to the increased use of insecticides and disturbance of roosting sites.

Rodents are well represented. They include the common house rat and the large-eyed Sand rat, the gerbil and the long-tailed jerboa which leaps like a tiny kangaroo. Many gerbils and jerboas, sadly, are found for sale in pet shops in Europe.

The crocodile, treated as a sacred animal by the Egyptians who kept them in tanks by their temples, is no longer found north of the Aswan Dam. A few remain in Lake Nasser and in Sudan. Tortoises are widespread. Terrapins are less common. Both tortoises and terrapins are taken in large numbers for the pet trade. There are over 30 species of lizard in the area, the most common being the wall lizard, which often lives close to houses. Sand racers are frequently seen on dunes, while sand fish and sand swimmers take advantage of deep sand to avoid predators and find cooler temperatures in the desert reg. Spiny lizards have distinctive enlarged spiked scales round their tails. The waran (or Egyptian monitor) can grow to over a metre in length. Geckoes are plump, soft-skinned, nocturnal lizards with adhesive pads on their toes and are frequently noted running up the walls in houses. The chameleon is a reptile with a prehensile tail and a long sticky tongue for catching insects. Although basically green, it can change colour to match its surroundings.

There are over 190 varieties of fish in the River Nile, the most common being the Nile bolti with coarse scales and spiny fins and the Nile perch, frequently well over 150 cm in length. Bolti are also found in Lake Nasser. Other fish include the inedible puffer fish, lungfish (which can survive in the mud when the waters recede), grey mullet and catfish which are a popular catch for domestic consumption but some species can give off strong electric shocks. Decline in fish numbers is blamed on pollution, over-fishing and change of environment due to the construction of the Aswan Dam. Marine fish such as sole and mullet have been introduced into Lake Qaroun which is becoming increasingly saline.

The Mediterranean Sea has insufficient nutrients to support large numbers of fish. The numerous small fishing boats with their small mesh nets seriously over-exploit the existing stock. The catch is similar to the North Atlantic – hake, sole, red mullet, turbot, whiting. Sardines occur off the Nile Delta but in much reduced quantities due to pollution. Tuna, more common to the west, are caught off Libya too. Grey mullet is fished in and off the Nile Delta while sponges, lobsters and shellfish are also harvested.

Egypt’s two largest life-sustaining regions, the Delta and the Nile Valley are both clustered close to its water supplies. The Delta lies north of Cairo and is a vast, low, flat triangle of land through which the tributaries of the Nile pass to the sea. South of Cairo the Nile is contained within a rich and fertile but narrow 2-3 km incised valley which eventually reaches Lake Nasser which is a 425-km ribbon of water extending up to and beyond the border with Sudan. The Delta and the Nile Valley contain almost 99% of the country’s cultivated land and approximately the same proportion of the population. East of the Nile Valley is the Eastern Desert and the narrow Red Sea coastline. To the east of the Delta lies the formerly isolated Sinai Peninsula which now has international airports and harbours and is traversed by major roads. West of the River Nile is the Libyan Desert which is usually referred to as Egypt’s Western Desert. It is broken up by the occurrence of the Al-Uweinat Heights in the southwest which extend in an elongated plateau towards the lowlands of Dakhla Oasis, which has larger parallel formations in the north as the Qattara and Siwa depressions which, together with Dakhla, form the eastern edge of the Sirtican embayment. The long coastal plain between Alexandria and Marsa Matruh gets narrower towards the west as it approaches the Libyan frontier in the Gulf of Sollum.

Egypt is a country of lowlands and low-lying plateaux of which 60% is less than 400 m above sea-level. The few areas of high relief are the Al-Uweinat Heights in the southwest and in the Eastern Desert adjacent to the Red Sea coast where mountains rise to over 1000 m. The highest mountain in the country is Jebel Katrina next to St Catherine’s Monastery which reaches 2228 m at its summit.

Egypt has the River Nile as its only but vital river. The total annual flow down the Nile, from the Blue Nile and River Atbara which both start in the Ethiopian highlands and the White Nile which begins in East Africa’s Lake Victoria, is normally 55 cu km. Under the 1959 Nile Waters Agreement, Egypt is entitled to take 37 cu km but, because Sudan so far does not use its full allocation, has been able to take more. There is now growing pressure in all the upstream states for more water and another water crisis is looming.

Egypt has undertaken extensive engineering projects on the River Nile over the centuries which reached a peak with work by the British authorities in the 19th and early 20th centuries. In the modern period the Aswan High Dam, which was designed to give Egypt both water-storage facilities and hydroelectric power for its new industries, was built with Russian assistance in the 1960s. In fact the low level of the River Nile in the late 1980s led to a major crisis and precipitated a crash programme to build power stations dependent on locally produced natural gas.

One of the most splendid sights on the river is the local feluccas under sail. The felucca is a lanteen-rigged sailing vessel for inshore or river work. It has very shallow draught so that it can safely cross shoals and can be easily rowed if the wind is absent or unfavourable. Most feluccas, once for transporting produce up and down the Nile, are now available for hire by tourists by the hour or the day for a suitably bargained price which will depend on the season and other factors.

In Egypt a basic problem for farmers was lifting water from the River Nile up the river banks which enclosed it. Simple systems of lifting water included windlasses and pulleys were used initially to enable humans or animals pull up leather bags full of river water. Some mechanization followed in which flow-turned wheels were used. These were driven by the current of the river and had pots or wooden containers to carry the water to be deposited at a higher level as at El-Fayoum. In much of the country where irrigation canals have little or no flow an animal powered wheel is exploited. Perhaps the classic and oldest water lifting device in Egypt is the shadoof, a weighted beam which is swung into the water by its operator and swung up and on to land with the help of a counter balance on the other end of the beam. In recent times water has been led to the fields by diesel and electric pumps.

The water supply system of Egypt has been much improved. Even before the construction of the Aswan Dam and the later High Dam much had been done to improve the water storage and flow control of the River Nile. Below the river works at Aswan is the Esna barrage, a masonry dam which acts as an enormous weir to raise the height of the River Nile so that water can be led off in side channels to serve the lands lying under the canal. Downstream at Assiut a diversion dam was constructed to send water throughout the year into the existing Ismail Pasha Canal. A second diversion dam was built at Nag Hammadi between Assiut and Esna. In the Delta, the replacement Mohammed Ali barrage was erected on the Rosetta branch. Other dams exist at Edfina and at Sennar in Egypt and Jebel Awlia in Sudan.

At the heart of the modern economy is the petroleum sector. The oilfield areas are widely distributed among the Suez/Sinai zone to the east and the more recently discovered Western Desert fields. Crude sales abroad account for about half of all exports.

Lankester, Dr Ted, The Travellers Good Health Guide, ISBN 0-85969-827-0.

Warrell, David, and Sarah Anderson, editors, Expedition Medicine, The Royal Geographic Society, ISBN 1 86197 040-4.

International Travel and Health World Health Organisation Geneva, ISBN 92 4 158026 7.

Fit for Travel (UK), http://www.fitfortravel.scot. nhs.uk. This site from Scotland provides a quick A-Z of vaccine and travel health advice requirements for each country.

The Health Protection Agency, http://www.hpa.org.uk. Up-to-date malaria advice guidelines for travel around the world. It gives specific advice about the right drugs for each location. It also has useful information for those who are pregnant, suffering from epilepsy or planning to travel with children.

British Travel Health Association (UK), http://www.btha.org. This is the official website of an organization of travel health professionals.

Foreign and Commonwealth Office (FCO) (UK), http://www.fco.gov.uk. This is a key travel advice site, with useful information on the country, people, climate and lists the UK embassies/consulates.

It is a very rare event indeed for travellers, but if you are unlucky (or careless) enough to be bitten by a venomous snake, spider, scorpion or sea creature, try to identify the creature, without putting yourself in further danger.

Snake bites in particular are frightening, but in fact rarely poisonous – even venomous snakes bite without injecting venom. Reassure and comfort the victim frequently. Immobilize the limb with a bandage or a splint and get the person to lie still. Do not slash the bite area and try to suck out the poison because this sort of heroism does more harm than good. If you know how to use a tourniquet in these circumstances, you will not need this advice. If you are not experienced, do not apply a tourniquet. Victims should be taken to a hospital or a doctor without delay.

Do not walk in snake territory in bare feet or sandals – wear proper shoes or boots. If you encounter a snake stay put until it slithers away and do not investigate a wounded snake. Spiders and scorpions may be found in the more basic hotels. If stung, rest and take plenty of fluids and call a doctor. The best precaution is to keep beds away from the walls and always look inside your shoes and under the toilet seat.

Diarrhoea can refer either to loose stools or an increased frequency; both of these can be a nuisance. It should be short lasting but persistence beyond 2 weeks, with blood or pain, require specialist medical attention.

Ciproxin (Ciprofloaxacin) is a useful antibiotic for bacterial travellers’ diarrhoea. It can be obtained by private prescription in the UK. You need to take one 500 mg tablet when the diarrhoea starts and if you do not feel better in 24 hrs, the diarrhoea is likely to have a non-bacterial cause and may be viral (in which case there is little you can do apart from keep yourself rehydrated and wait for it to settle on its own). The key treatment with all diarrhoeas is rehydration. Try to keep hydrated by taking the right mixture of salt and water. This is available as Oral Rehydration Salts (ORS) in ready-made sachets or can be made up by adding a teaspoon of sugar and a half teaspoon of salt to a litre of clean water. Drink at least 1 large cup of this drink for each loose stool. You can also use flat carbonated drinks as an alternative. Immodium and Pepto-Bismol provide symptomatic relief.

Hepatitis means inflammation of the liver. Viral causes of the disease can be acquired anywhere in the world. The most obvious symptom is a yellowing of your skin or the whites of your eyes. However, prior to this all that you may notice is itching and tiredness.

Minimal risk exists only in the El-Fayoum area. Risk is highest from Jun-Oct. Check with your doctor before you go about which prophylactic (if any) you should take if travelling in this region. Remember that it is risky to buy medicinal tablets abroad because the doses may differ and there may be a trade in false drugs.

This infection is caused by a parasite, released from fresh water snails. Infected humans contaminate the water by their urine or stools. The form that penetrates the skin after you have swum or waded through water can cause a local itch soon after, fever after a few weeks and much later diarrhoea, abdominal pain and spleen or liver enlargement.